AHSEC| CLASS 12| LOGIC AND PHILOSOPHY| SOLVED PAPER - 2024| H.S. 2ND YEAR
2024
LOGIC AND PHILOSOPHY
Full Marks: 100
Pass Marks: 30
Time: Three hours
The figures in the margin indicate
full marks for the questions.
1. Give very short answers: 1x12=12
(a) "Logic is a normative science." Is the statement true?
Ans:- The statement "Logic is a
normative science" is true. Logic is believed to have a normative role in
guiding how we should think and reason.
(b) What kind of proposition does Scientific Induction establish?
Ans:- Scientific induction establishes
empirical generalizations or probabilistic propositions.
(c) What is the ground of Unscientific Induction?
Ans:- The basis of unscientific
induction is mere enumeration of examples.
(d) Who is the propounder of Scientific Realism?
Ans:- The originator of scientific
realism is Bertrand Russell.
(e) Give on example of non-moral action.
Ans:- An example of a non-moral act is
drinking a glass of water.
(f) What word does Buddha use to mean 'Moksa' or 'Liberation'?
Ans:- Buddha explained the meaning of
the word "nirvana" as 'salvation' or 'liberation'.
(g) Which theory of Truth does Naive Realism support?
Ans:- Naïve realism supports the
correspondence theory of truth.
(h) "Religion is faith in the conservation of values." Who
said this?
Ans:- This quote is from William James.
(i) On which law is the quantitative marks of a cause based?
Ans:- The law of causality is the law on
which the quantitative signs of a cause are based.
(j) How many instances are required for the method of difference?
Ans:- The method of difference requires
at least two instances.
(k) What is the meaning of the Greek word 'Ethos'?
Ans:- The Greek word 'ethos' means
'character'.
(l) "Hypothesis is a provisional supposition." Is it true?
Ans:- Yes, the statement
"Hypothesis is a provisional guess" is true.
2. Give an example of Good Analogy. 2
Ans:- Here is an example of a good
analogy:
(i) Life is like a rollercoaster: Life
can be like riding a rollercoaster. Our lives have many ups and downs, twists
and turns. Like riding a rollercoaster:
(ii) Climbing: Climbing to the top of
the first big hill represents the hard work, perseverance and challenges we
face as we work towards our goals and dreams. It can be slow, difficult and
sometimes even scary, but the anticipation of reaching the top motivates us to
keep going.
Or
Give the definition of Scientific Induction. 2
Ans:- Scientific induction is a form of
logical reasoning that involves drawing general conclusions or principles from
specific observations or experiences. It is a creative process where the
scientist carefully studies a sample of phenomena, then formulates a hypothesis
to explain the broader phenomenon. Induction allows scientists to make educated
guesses about broad trends or principles based on specific data points, rather
than drawing conclusions from general principles. However, induction cannot
provide absolute certainty, as there is always the possibility that future
observations may contradict the induced conclusion. Induction is an essential
tool in scientific research, as it allows scientists to explore the unknown and
formulate hypotheses, which can then be tested through further experimentation.
3. What do you mean by 'conjunction of
causes'? 2
Ans:-
Conjunction of reasons refers to the use of conjunctions to connect clauses or
sentences that express the reasons or causes of something happening.
The main points are:-
(i) Conjunctions such as “because”, “as”, “since”, “therefore”, “as
a result of”, etc. are used to connect clauses or sentences that express a
cause and effect relationship.
(ii) These conjunctions allow you to explain the reasons or causes
of something happening and connect them to resulting effects or consequences.
(iii) The use of these “cause and effect” conjunctions helps to
structure sentences and express the relationships between ideas more clearly.
(iv) Some examples of how these conjunctions can be used to express
conjunction of reasons are:-
“I
was late for work because there was heavy traffic on the highway.”
“The
playground at the school was slippery because it snowed on Sunday.”
“She
was very tired because she worked late.”
In short, causal conjunction refers to
the use of conjunctions to link clauses or sentences that provide a reason or
cause for something, in order to clarify the relationship between the cause and
its effect.
Or
State two advantages of Simple Observation. 2
Ans:- The two main advantages of simple observation method for data
collection are as follows:-
(i) Directness: Observation is a direct
method of collecting data, especially for studying human behaviour. The
observer can collect data directly from the source without relying on
self-reports or other indirect methods. This directness makes the data more
accurate and reliable.
(ii) Reduction of artificiality:
Observation can reduce deception and artificiality in research. The observer can
collect data naturally without interfering or influencing the behaviour of the
subjects. This allows for more authentic data collection compared to methods
that may alter the actions of the subjects.
Some other advantages of observation include:-
(i) Improving the accuracy of research results
(ii) Reducing dependence on respondents
(iii) Allowing continuous observation over long periods of time
using recording devices
(iv) Being less demanding and biased than other methods
(v) Identifying problems through in-depth analysis
However, observation also has
limitations such as being time-consuming, potentially influencing the behaviour
of subjects, and not being able to study opinions, attitudes or past events.
Observation is used in conjunction with other data collection methods to gain a
more complete understanding of the research topic.
4. Mention two differences between
Primary Quality and Secondary Quality. 2
Ans:- According to John Locke the main
differences between primary and secondary qualities are:-
(i) Primary qualities are properties of
objects that exist independently of the observer, such as solidity, extension,
motion, number and figure. They are measurable aspects of physical reality. In
contrast, secondary qualities are subjective qualities that produce
sensations in observers, such as colour, taste, smell and sound.
(ii) Primary qualities are considered
inseparable from matter and found in every part of it. They are real objective
properties of objects that are known categorically. Secondary qualities
are not true properties of matter, but merely powers in objects to produce
sensory impressions in us through primary qualities. They are in some way derivative,
less than fully real, or metaphysically weak.
In short, primary qualities are
objective, mind-independent properties of objects, while secondary qualities
are subjective, mind-dependent sensations that are produced in observers.
Primary qualities are considered more fundamental and genuine, while secondary
qualities are considered derivative or less metaphysically strong.
5. "Esse est percipi" Give the
meaning of the statement. 2
Ans:- The
phrase "esse est percipi" means "to be is to be perceived".
It is a key tenet of the philosophical view of George Berkeley, a leading
British empiricist.
The main idea behind "esse est percipi" is that an
object's existence depends on its being perceived by a mind. Berkeley argued
that physical objects do not have independent existence outside of being
perceived. He rejected the existence of a mind-independent physical world, and
instead held that objects exist only as ideas or perceptions in the mind.
In other words, for Berkeley, an object's being (esse) is equivalent
to its being perceived (percipi). An object cannot exist unless it is perceived
by a mind. From this, Berkeley concluded that only minds and the
ideas/perceptions within those minds truly exist. According to Berkeley, the
physical world is entirely dependent on being perceived.
This philosophical position is known as subjective idealism or
immaterialism. Berkeley argued that even when no human is observing an object,
it continues to exist because it is observed by God, the "universal
mind" that sustains all reality. So for Berkeley, the existence of the physical
world is ultimately based on divine perception.
In short, "esse est percipi"
expresses Berkeley's basic belief that existence is equivalent to being
experienced, and that the physical world has no independent reality outside of
the mind observing it.
Or
What is theory of 'Pre-established harmony'? 2
Ans:- Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's theory
of pre-established harmony is a philosophical theory that explains the apparent
causal interactions between mind and body, as well as between different
substances in the universe, without invoking actual causality.
The main points of the theory are:
(i)
There is no actual causality between substances. When a change occurs in one
substance, it is not caused by another substance, but rather it reflects a
pre-established harmony created by God between all substances.
(ii)
God synchronized the universe by establishing harmony between all monads
(infinitesimal psychophysical entities) in a single creative act at the
beginning of time.
(iii)
The theory implies that there is no actual causal interaction between mind and
body. Rather, mind and body are programmed by God to be in perfect agreement,
like two clocks that always display the same time.
(iv)
Each substance's "program" contains either a description of the
entire universe or a description of how the object is to behave at all times
across all interactions.
(v)
The theory implies a "consistency" between substances that is
"admirably beautiful in itself and worthy of its Creator (God)".
So in essence, Leibniz's theory denies
actual cause-effect relationships between substances, positing instead a
pre-established harmony governed by God that explains the apparent cause-effect
relationships in the world and between mind and body.
6. Give an example of Fallacy of
Non-observation. 2
Ans:- The
fallacy of non-observation is a type of incorrect observation fallacy that occurs
when relevant facts or details are overlooked or neglected. For example,
"Many people die in bed. Therefore, do not lie in bed" is an example
of a fallacy of non-observation and an invalid generalization. Illegal
generalizations, also known as hasty or overgeneralizations, occur when a
conclusion is assumed to be true based on little evidence.
Fallacies can be intentional or unintentional, and may be caused by
a number of factors, including carelessness, cognitive or social bias,
ignorance, or language limitations. Arguments containing informal fallacies may
be formally valid, but are still considered fallacious.
7. What are the postulates of Ethics? 2
Ans:- The principles of Kant's ethical
theory are:-
(i) Freedom of the will:
(a) Freedom of the will is the fundamental principle of ethics.
Morality requires that the will be free and not determined by external forces.
(b) Kant argues that freedom of the will is a necessary condition
for the moral law to apply to us. It is the "cornerstone of the whole
architecture of the system of pure reason."
(ii) Immortality of the soul:
(a) Kant says that belief in immortality is essential to ethics,
because it is difficult for a person to be righteous without hope of an
afterlife.
(b) Immortality ensures that there is room for calculation of
happiness in proportion to a person's moral merit.
(iii) Existence of God:
(a) Kant's concept of God is not a metaphysical concept, but a moral
requirement that guarantees the possibility of the "highest good" - a
balance between virtue and happiness.
(b) God is needed to ensure that virtue is ultimately rewarded, even
if not in this life.
In short, Kant believed that these three
notions – freedom, immortality, and God – were the primary conditions necessary
for morality and the attainment of the highest moral good. They provide the
metaphysical framework for his ethical theory.
Or
What is the meaning of 'intention' in Ethics? 2
Ans:- In ethics, intention refers to the
purpose or goal behind an action. It is an important concept often used to
evaluate the morality of an action.
The main points about intention in ethics are:-
(i) Intention is different from foresight, reason, desire, motive,
moral responsibility, and deliberate action. For example, an agent can foresee
the outcome of his or her action without intending to.
(ii) Intention is usually understood as what the agent was trying to
do or attempting to bring about, or the aim or purpose of the action. If the
intended outcome is not achieved, the action will be considered a failure from
the agent's point of view.
(iii) Intention is central to the principle of double effect in
ethics, which states that an agent can cause a bad outcome if it is not
intended to be the means or the end, and the good intended is greater than the
bad.
(iv) The theory of moral intention proposes that the primary concern
in ethics should be the agent's moral intentions, which should aim to implement
virtues such as freedom, truth, equality, etc. Protecting moral intention
involves avoiding faulty justifications that neutralize these values.
(v) In Buddhism, intention (consciousness) is seen as the source of
action that precedes both good and bad deeds. Developing moral intention
requires conscious awareness of one's thoughts and actions.
So in summary, intention in ethics
refers to the purpose behind an action, which is important for evaluating its
morality, especially in cases of unintended consequences. Moral theories
emphasize the importance of linking good intentions with moral values.
8. Write any two criticisms of Naive
Realism. 2
Ans:- The two main criticisms of naive
realism are as follows:-
(i) Naive realism fails to understand
the inner-dependence of perceptions. Perceptions are not only externally
directed but also depend on the neural-computational properties of the subject.
The phenomenology of perceptions is shaped by the internal cognitive processes
of the subject, not just by the external objects being observed. Naive realism
struggles to accommodate this inner-dependence aspect of perceptual experience.
(ii) Naive realism also leads to the
blind spot of bias, where people recognise biases in others but fail to
recognise their own biases. Naive realists believe that they see the world
objectively without any distorting influences, while attributing differences in
views to the irrationality or ignorance of others. This can escalate conflicts
and create barriers to mutual understanding.
9. Give a concrete example of method of
difference. 2
Ans:- Here is a concrete example of the
difference method:-
Adam and Bill order Chinese food. They both eat the Kung Pao beef
and the Sichuan bean curd, but Bill does not eat the chicken lo mein. An hour
later, Adam becomes very ill with vomiting and stomach cramps. These symptoms
are similar to food poisoning.
Using the difference method:-
Adam: Beef, bean curd, chicken - event
(illness)
Bill: Beef, bean curd - no event
The main difference between Adam's and Bill's meals is the chicken
lo mein that Adam ate but Bill did not. Since this was the only difference and
Adam became ill while Bill did not, the difference method shows that the
chicken lo mein was the cause of Adam's food poisoning symptoms.
The difference method compares two similar situations where the
event (illness) occurs in one case but not in the other. The main thing is to
identify what one factor makes a difference between the two cases. If the
factor is present when the effect occurs and absent when the effect does not
occur, then, despite other similarities, it is probably the cause of the effect
or a necessary part of the cause.
10. Why is habitual action considered as
an object of moral judgement? 2
Ans:-
Habitual actions are considered objects of moral judgment because they are the
result of repeated voluntary actions. Ultimately, only voluntary actions can be
judged as right or wrong, since anything that is not done voluntarily has no
moral value.
Voluntary action consists of three main stages:-
(i) The mental stage which includes purpose, intention, desire,
deliberation, choice and resolution
(ii) The organic stage of physical action
(iii) The external stage of results Since habitual actions arise
from this process of repeated voluntary actions.
They too become subject to moral evaluation, even though the
habitual nature may make the voluntary element less conscious.
11. What do you mean by 'vera cause'? 2
[Coming soon]
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